By confounding perspective with modality, this led to the assumption that internal imagery was the more effective way to image by providing the individual with a realistic and complete sensory experience (i.e., a movement could be both seen and felt). However, these terms and how they were defined conveyed the impression that kinesthetic sensations could only be experienced using internal imagery. Initially, the first-person– internal visual imagery and third-person–external visual imagery perspectives were known simply as internal imagery and external imagery. Historically, there has been some confusion related to the concept of imagery perspective and the terminology used. However, kinesthetic imagery can also encompass other bodily feelings including body limb positioning, tactile information (e.g., the feet make contact with the ground), physiological responses (e.g., an increase in heart rate, pain, fatigue), and emotions (e.g., excitement, anxiety). A runner may image how his legs feel while performing the running action. Most commonly this internal sensation refers to the muscles associated with performing a movement. Kinesthetic imagery refers to how it feels when experiencing the situation. Returning to the ball-kicking example, if the athlete was to view herself from a third-person perspective, she may see her entire body performing the kicking movement. This can be done from different viewpoints or angles, with the most common being in front, behind, the side, and above. In a third person perspective, also referred to as an external visual imagery perspective, the individual views the movement as if they were adopting someone else’s point of view to see the scenario. An athlete who is imaging herself kicking a ball from this perspective may see the ball down on the ground, her feet running toward the ball, her foot making contact with the ball, and the ball rising up in front of her. In a first-person perspective, also referred to as an internal visual imagery perspective, the individual views the scenario through their own eyes as if they were performing the movement. Visual imagery can be performed from either a first-person perspective or a third-person perspective. The visual modality refers to what the individual sees in the image and is therefore commonly referred to as the mind’s eye. Imagery Modalities and PerspectivesĪlthough imagery can be experienced through different sensory modalities, within movement domains such as sport and exercise, the two most commonly used are visual and kinesthetic. This entry summarizes key research findings including (a) the main imagery modalities and perspectives characterizing athletes’ and exercisers’ imagery use, (b) the functions and outcomes this imagery use can serve, and (c) how imagery can be used most effectively. Consequently, imagery has emerged as a popular topic within sport and exercise psychology and is extensively researched. It is well established that athletes competing at a higher level and more active exercisers report greater use of imagery. Moreover, the frequency of imagery use is a marker of success in sport as well as level of engagement in physical activity. When used effectively, this technique results in better performance, both directly and indirectly via improvements to, among other things, motivation, confidence, and attentional focus. Imagery is deliberately employed by athletes and exercisers to achieve a range of affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes. Consequently, imagery is the most appropriate term to describe this cognitive process. As well as being able to see the scenario, imagery allows an individual to feel associated movements and bodily sensations, and experience the sounds, smells, and even tastes related to the actual situation. However, it is well known that mentally simulating an experience can involve multiple sensory modalities. Second, the term visualization implies that imagery only contains a visual component. Therefore, imagery and mental rehearsal are not synonymous, but imagery use does fall within the category of mental rehearsal. First, although imagery is a popular type of mental rehearsal, this term encompasses a variety of mental techniques athletes and exercisers employ such as observation and self-talk. The terms mental rehearsal and visualization are sometimes used to refer to imagery, but this can be misleading for two reasons. As a conscious process that is deliberately employed by an athlete or exerciser to serve a specific function, it is distinctly different from daydreaming or just thinking about something. Imagery involves internally experiencing a situation that mimics a real experience without experiencing the real thing.